07. Memory

Authors: David Wiley

License: CC BY 4.0

Topic Outcomes

Explain how memory functions

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Explain the two major processes of encoding and the three different ways that we encode sensory information
Describe the three stages of memory storage
Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory and semantic and episodic memory
Explain retrieval cues and the three types of retrieval (recall, recognition, and relearning)

Describe the brain's role in memory

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Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory
Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia

Describe problems with memory

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Examine common memory errors (such as transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence)
Identify types of memory interference (proactive and retroactive)
Explain the misinformation effect
Describe the unreliability of eyewitness testimony
Examine research and controversy surrounding false memories

Explain various memory enhancing strategies

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Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies, including mnemonics, rehearsal, chunking, and peg-words
Describe memory techniques for improved studying and learning

Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use.
Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing. Storage is the retention of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning.
The idea that information is processed through three memory systems is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory. First, environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a period of less than a second to a few seconds. Those stimuli that we notice and pay attention to then move into short-term memory. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, if we rehearse this information, then it moves into long-term memory for permanent storage.
Other models like that of Baddeley and Hitch suggest there is more of a feedback loop between short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory has a practically limitless storage capacity and is divided into implicit and explicit memory.

Beginning with Karl Lashley, researchers and psychologists have been searching for the engram, which is the physical trace of memory. Lashley did not find the engram, but he did suggest that memories are distributed throughout the entire brain rather than stored in one specific area.
Now we know that three brain areas do play significant roles in the processing and storage of different types of memories: cerebellum, hippocampus, and amygdala. The cerebellum’s job is to process procedural memories; the hippocampus is where new memories are encoded; the amygdala helps determine what memories to store, and it plays a part in determining where the memories are stored based on whether we have a strong or weak emotional response to the event.
Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory, so that memory for an emotional event is usually stronger than memory for a non-emotional event. This is shown by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon: our ability to remember significant life events. However, our memory for life events (autobiographical memory) is not always accurate.

All of us at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and even embarrassed when our memories have failed us. Our memory is flexible and prone to many errors.
There are several reasons why forgetting occurs. In cases of brain trauma or disease, forgetting may be due to amnesia. Another reason we forget is due to encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it in our memory in the first place.
Schacter presents seven memory errors that also contribute to forgetting: transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence.
Sometimes, information is actually stored in our memory, but we cannot access it due to interference.
- Proactive interference happens when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
- Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.
Memories are malleable and subject to alteration, as the process of retrieving and reconstructing them can introduce inaccuracies and distortions, known as the misinformation effect, which has significant implications for eyewitness testimony and the reliability of memories in legal contexts.

There are many ways to combat the inevitable failures of our memory system. Some common strategies that can be used in everyday situations include mnemonic devices, rehearsal, self-referencing, and adequate sleep. These same strategies also can help you to study more effectively.

Memory Cheat Sheet from Lumen One Introduction to Psychology, Lumen Learning, https://lumenlearning.com/, CC BY.

Psychology, 2e, OpenStax, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/, CC BY.

David Wiley