09. Lifespan Development

Describe major theories of development

• Describe the three major issues in development: continuity and discontinuity, one common course of development or many unique courses of development, and nature versus nurture

• Describe many of the common theories of development

• Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson Describe the theories and stages of child development

• Describe the stages of prenatal development and the significance of prenatal care

• Define and differentiate between various infant reflexes

• Explain the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood

• Explain key cognitive milestones during early childhood, including Piaget's sensorimotor and preoperational stages

• Explain key cognitive milestones during late childhood and into adulthood, including Piaget's concrete operational and formal operational stages Explain attachment and parenting styles

• Explain the emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood, including attachment and the development of a self-concept

• Explain parenting styles Describe the development that occurs during adolescence

• Describe physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs during adolescence

• Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and the stages of reasoning

• Explain the procedure, results, and implications of Hamlin and Wynn's research on moral reasoning in infants Describe the development that occurs during adulthood

• Describe physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in adulthood

• Differentiate between fluid and crystallized intelligence

• Explain attitudes toward death and Kübler-Ross's five stages of grief (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance)

Essential Concepts

Theories of Development

• Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial.

• There are several theories of development that focus on the following issues: whether development is continuous or discontinuous, whether development follows one course or many, and the relative influence of nature versus nurture on development.

• There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults.

  • Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body.

  • Eric Erikson modified Freud’s ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self.

  • Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages.

  • Lawrence Kohlberg focused on moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.

Child Development

• At conception, the egg and sperm unite to form a zygote. This cell begins to divide rapidly, marking this start of the germinal stage (0-2 weeks).

• Then the zygote implants in the uterus lining, initiating the embryonic stage (2-8 weeks). In this stage, the embryo begins to develop body and organ structures, and the neural tube forms, which will later become the brain and spinal cord.

• The fetal stage (9 weeks-birth) is marked by the rapid growth of body, brain, and organs.

• Prenatal care is crucial throughout pregnancy for the health of the parent and baby.

• Newborns typically weigh 7.5 pounds. Doctors check newborn reflexes like sucking, rooting, and Moro.

• Skills evolve from infancy to late adulthood across physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains. Motor development has sequential milestones indicating potential delays.

• Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) in Piaget’s theory:

  • Exploration through senses and motor behaviors.

  • Development of object permanence and stranger anxiety.

  • Infants might understand objects without direct experiences.

• Preschool (preoperational stage) in Piaget’s theory:

  • Symbolic play, language use, and egocentrism are evident.

  • Development of a theory of mind, understanding that others have different thoughts and beliefs, enables them to engage in teasing, persuasion, and empathy.

• Concrete operational stage (7-11 years) in Piaget’s theory:

  • Logical thinking about real events, memory strategies, and math operations.

  • Understanding of concepts such as conservation and reversibility.

• There are alternative perspectives, such as the postformal stage, suggesting that cognitive development continues into adulthood and is influenced by neural brain development and interactions with the environment.

Attachment and Parenting

• Attachment is a crucial aspect of psychosocial development, with infants forming bonds with caregivers based on feelings of comfort and security.

• Ainsworth’s research identified different attachment styles including secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized, which can be influenced by caregiver responsiveness and cultural factors.

• Self-concept is the understanding of who we are, which develops through milestones such as self-recognition, establishing autonomy and confidence in abilities, and forming a sense of identity based on group memberships and personal traits, ultimately influencing our confidence, independence, and willingness to try new activities.

• Parenting styles, such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, play a crucial role in shaping a child’s socioemotional growth.

• Authoritative parenting is associated with positive outcomes like high self-esteem and social skills, while permissive and uninvolved parenting styles can lead to negative consequences such as lack of self-discipline and emotional withdrawal.

Adolescent Development and Moral Reasoning

• Adolescence is a period of development that begins at puberty and ends in the mid- to late 20s, characterized by physical changes, cognitive development, and psychosocial milestones, with the frontal lobes of the brain still maturing and undergoing neural growth and pruning processes.

• Adolescence is a period of cognitive development characterized by increased abstract thinking, multiple perspective-taking, and the development of cognitive empathy, while psychosocially, adolescents focus on forming their identities through exploration and commitments, with different identity statuses reflecting the level of exploration and commitment achieved.

• Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development suggests that individuals progress through stages of moral reasoning, from pre-conventional to conventional and, in some cases, post-conventional morality, with the highest stage valuing human life over greed.

• Carol Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s theory, arguing that women reason differently, focusing more on interpersonal relationships and the importance of staying connected.

• Recent research suggests that infants have more complex moral reasoning than previously believed, showing preferences for good behavior, aversion to bad behavior, and judgments based on similarities and differences, challenging earlier notions of moral development in young children and highlighting the need for further exploration and understanding in the field.

Adult Development

• Emerging adulthood is a distinct developmental stage from 18 to the mid-20s, characterized by extended exploration and delay in traditional adult milestones such as career, marriage, and starting a family, influenced by cultural shifts and changing expectations.

• Adulthood is divided into three stages: early, middle, and late, each presenting unique challenges and rewards.

  • In terms of physical development, early adulthood is characterized by peak physical abilities, while middle adulthood brings gradual physical decline, and late adulthood marks the last stage of physical change with a further decline in various abilities.

  • Cognitive development in adulthood involves both losses and gains, with declines in certain cognitive tasks but the potential for compensatory expertise and knowledge, and engaging in mentally and physically stimulating activities can help delay cognitive decline.

  • Psychosocial development in adulthood involves finding meaning through work and family in early and middle adulthood, while later stages involve reviewing life events and establishing a sense of integrity versus despair, with positive relationships and social connectedness playing important roles in overall well-being.

• Death marks the endpoint of our lifespan. There are many ways that we might react when facing death. Kübler-Ross developed a five-stage model of grief as a way to explain this process.

Lifespan Development Cheat Sheet from Lumen One Introduction to Psychology, Lumen Learning, https://lumenlearning.com/, CC BY.

Psychology, 2e, OpenStax, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/, CC BY.

David Wiley