Describe learning and classical conditioning

• Explains causes for behaviors—including reflexes, instincts, associative learning, and observational learning

• Explain classical conditioning

• Identify the NS, UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in classical conditioning situations

Explain processes in classical conditioning

• Describe the processes of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery as they relate to conditioning

• Describe the processes of generalization and discrimination as they relate to conditioning

Describe operant conditioning

• Define and give examples of operant conditioning

• Define reinforcement and punishment and differentiate between them

• Identify types of reinforcement and punishment

Explain reinforcement

• Define shaping

• Differentiate between primary and secondary reinforcers

• Distinguish between interval reinforcement schedules

• Distinguish between ratio reinforcement schedules

Describe other types of learning

• Explain latent learning and cognitive maps

• Explain observational learning and the steps in the modeling process

• Describe Albert Bandura's bobo doll experiment and its implications

Essential Concepts

Learning and Classical Conditioning

• Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

• There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

• Pavlov’s pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know about learning. His experiments explored the type of associative learning we now call classical conditioning.

• In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together, and researchers study how a reflexive response to a stimulus can be mapped to a different stimulus—by training an association between the two stimuli. Pavlov’s experiments show how stimulus-response bonds are formed.

Processes in Classical Conditioning

• During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to the development of a conditioned response.

• Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a decrease in the conditioned response.

• Spontaneous recovery refers to the reemergence of the conditioned response after a rest period. S

• timulus discrimination involves responding differently to similar stimuli, while stimulus generalization occurs when the conditioned response is elicited by stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

• Watson, the founder of behaviorism, was greatly influenced by Pavlov’s work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known as Little Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how some fears develop.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated. An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a specific behavior.

• The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishment (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response.

Reinforcement

• Shaping is a technique used to teach complex behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior, breaking it down into achievable steps, and gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations until the target behavior is achieved. It is commonly used in animal training and can also be effective in teaching behaviors to humans, such as children learning to clean their room.

• Reinforcement can be used to promote learning and behavior change in both animals and humans. Primary reinforcers, such as food and water, have innate value, while secondary reinforcers, like praise or tokens, gain their reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.

• Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time.

  • Continuous reinforcement involves providing a reinforcer every time a behavior is displayed, making it an effective and quick method for teaching new behaviors.

  • Partial reinforcement involves providing reinforcement intermittently, with various schedules based on fixed or variable criteria such as response number or time intervals.

Other Types of Learning

• Latent learning is a type of learning that is not immediately expressed in behavior and is only demonstrated when there is motivation or a reason to do so, challenging the principles of behaviorism that emphasized observable responses and immediate reinforcement. It involves the formation of cognitive maps and can be observed in both animals and humans.

• According to Bandura, learning can occur by watching others and then modeling what they do or say. This is known as observational learning.

• There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Learning Cheat Sheet from Lumen One Introduction to Psychology, Lumen Learning, https://lumenlearning.com/, CC BY.

David Wiley